Stone bone tool industries
This awl was made from the tibia of a small-sized mammal, possibly a primate Fig. After re- moval of the distal epiphysis, the adjacent metaphyseal surface was pointed by longitudinally scraping the bone with an irreg- ular cutting edge.
This left individual subparallel, often Fig. Tanged bone point from M1 phasedvarious aspects. Microscopically, two different use-wears are accession number.
This point Fig. In the area close to the tip limb-bone shaft fragment of a bovid of Class II size. The tip Fig. The shiny ap- present at the proximal end. The naturally pointed shape of pearance of the bone surface in the center of the diaphysis the bone flake was straightened by longitudinally scraping Fig.
The aspects with an irregular cutting edge Fig. The base of the tool was probably heated before and the fracture has been shaped into an awl by scraping shaping the tang, with the aim of hardening the bone to facil- Fig. The entire shaft has also been longitudinally scraped itate its knapping. The use-wear polish on the tool tip shows Fig. The wear that smoothes the traces of manufacture that the initial striations left by scraping were reduced through close to the tip suggests that the tool was used before being utilization, suggesting that the tool was hafted and used.
Dark spots on the shaft indicate that the 4. BBC shaft fragment retoucher, M1 phase, square I5d, bone was heated after being shaped. This long-bone shaft frag- 6. Both of these broken bone-point surface and evidence of spiral fractures, suggesting that the tips were found in the same layer.
The first Fig. One end is modified by ably bird bone, and its thin outline is similar to those of com- continuous scaled removals that created a morphology similar plete specimens found in the BBC MSA Henshilwood et al. Microscopic analysis of these re- b: fig. Traces of manufacture by scraping Fig. The second speci- that can be attributed to use-wear, particularly as the rest of men Fig.
The periosteal surface close scraped on the fracture edges to shape a point Fig. BBC engraved bone, M1 phase, square E5a, layer CB no side-striations, and barbs generated by a cutting edge, indicate accession number. This long-bone shaft fragment from a small that they were produced by a sharp lithic point that had incised mammal Fig. The presence of a few linear periosteal surface.
These were made by a cutting edge, as in- impact scars close together, one of which is crossed by an dicated by their thin ends and the presence of side striations. This bird humerus was recorded as coming demonstrate the antiquity of the lines. The unusual conver- from the M3 phase layer AH during the e excava- gence of two groups of incisions suggests that they were tions at BBC.
It has been broken close to the distal epiphysis deliberate. Midshaft fragments from M1 phase bearing engravings on the periosteal surface and possible retouch at one end. This supports the interpretation that the inci- sions are ancient. However, the incisions look fresh, and there is no accumulation of sediment. Most of the bone excavated during the e seasons at Blombos Cave was washed and scrubbed with a brush at the Iziko-South African Museum shortly after recovery.
It is clear that this piece was washed Fig. The fact that the incisions are limited to the periosteal surface and pre- cede the breakage of the bone strongly suggests that they are ancient, but we cannot entirely rule out excavation damage i. The first excavation was a test pit in Bertie and Victor Peers later excavated the site in the late s Peers, ; Jager, ; Deacon, , and most of the deposit was removed at that time.
The excavators found mostly MSA ma- terial, but their stratigraphic control was poor. Only selected artifacts were kept and the balance was dumped on the talus. Although their results were not fully published, Peers suggested in an abbreviated report that the Still Bay was sandwiched between HP layers.
The problem was later exacerbated in the mids when some archaeologists regarded lanceolate points, the markers of the Still Bay, as an integral component of the HP rather than as a temporally separate MSA entity Goodwin, ; Malan, Unfortu- nately, this excavation was also neither well-controlled nor well-reported, and confusion continued about the position of Fig.
Close-up views of the shaft fragments from BBC M1 phase, depicted in Figure 5, showing the contiguous, possibly anthropogenic, smoothed removals the Still Bay. Later, a small excavation by Anthony , present at one end a and the engravings close to the opposite end b. Arrow did not help resolve the problem. Radiocarbon dating of the skull later confirmed this 8. The bone mammal long bone, this incised piece from the M3 phase point Fig. Whether it derives from MSA or Fig.
The sinuous outline of the incisions and their inner LSA levels was not recorded. It is the distal end of a point morphology suggest that they were incised by a very sharp V- made on a shaft fragment of a Class II bovid. The tip is miss- shaped point.
The prox- Dimensions of the Peers Cave point are close to those of the imal break is also postdepositional in origin. A small area near BBC bone tools interpreted by Henshilwood et al. Bone the exposed areas are slightly polished, as if the tool surface protein is known to degrade over time, resulting in the loss was deliberately polished and the tool used before breakage. Hence, bones from LSA and Thirteen close, elongated marks, covered by manganese stain- MSA levels will have considerably different concentrations ing, are recorded on one aspect of the object in the half near of these two elements.
There may be intrasite variations in the proximal break. Un- usually calcrete or calcarenite, and it is possible it came from til the s, this area was a shifting dune field fed by aeolian a mixed horizon. Plant- water action. The Still Bay type-site, first described herbivore Fig. Root marks, particularly intense on the by Heese after his discovery of bifacial lanceolate points middle and proximal portions of the object, partially erase within the Kleinjongensfontein dune cordon, lies about traces of manufacture, consisting of spindlelike grooves visi- 15 km east of Blombosch Sands.
The orientation of these striations ited the Blombosch Sands area to collect lithics in the late indicates that the body of the object was shaped by moving the s Heese, n. The bone tool described below de- resharpened, by moving it perpendicularly. The same tech- rives from an open site located in the Blombosch Sands nique was used to create a flat butt Fig.
Technologically and morphologically, this tool is very tion of archaeological materials onto a common hard surface, different from the awls discovered in BBC MSA layers.
AMS dating may help re- vated by following the layering. There is still some confusion, solve the age of this piece, but in our opinion, it is likely to be however, in the interpretation of some of the excavated layers LSA. Wurz, 9 , and much of the material from these excava- tions is not well-detailed.
In , H. Deacon began new excavations in cave The Klasies River KR sites are situated on the southern 1 and shelter 1a that concentrated on rehabilitation of major Cape coast, about 40 km from Cape St. Wurz, ; Wurz et al. The Klasies River bone arti- sapiens.
In cave 1 and shelter 1a, the accumulation starts at facts described below come from the MSA layers excavated ca.
The entrance to cave 1 was eventually sealed off by Wymer in cave 1 and shelter 1a Singer and Wymer, by deposit, and later the deposit in 1a became high enough The finds consist of: 1 a bone point SAM- to provide access to cave 2. A date of ca. Based on thermoluminescence results, Feathers proposed that the HP falls within a window of 55 to 60 ka. Further HP dates for Klasies of ca. An important implication of the new dates for the Still Bay and the HP presented above is that temporal continu- ity is not a given and that 10 kyr may separate the two indus- tries.
Layer 16 was dated at ca. This elongated point, probably made from Peers point. It has been shaped by scraping from layer 20 in shelter 1a; 3 a notched bone SAM- the blank longitudinally with a retouched lithic cutting-edge, AA from the disturbed top of Layer 15 in cave 1; and as demonstrated by the presence of the typical thin, deep 4 a notched bone and possible fragment of the same bone grooves left by this technique Fig.
It seems likely that the disturbed top a double-pointed tool, morphologically similar to LSA of layer 15 is probably layer 16 of cave 1, which equates Fig. Both points and linkshafts similar to those known ered when the engravings were made Fig. In addition, ethnographically have been found at LSA sites Fagan and the three longer lines start on an old surface of fracture, indi- Van Noten, ; Deacon, , suggesting that the same cating that the fragment was already detached from a larger hafting system was used by southern African LSA people piece when it was engraved.
The subrectangular shape of the Deacon, Dimensions of the KR point are close to object, with one long and two short sides, is a result of three the mean of dimensions recorded on LSA points from ancient breaks. The remaining long side, located close to the BBC and Nelson Bay Cave and close to the upper limit of specimen identification label, is the result of a postdepositional the range of dimensions recorded on Kalahari San bone ar- break.
Singer and Wymer , Fig. This piece is a midshaft fragment of this object as a burnt fragment of scapula or rib with dentic- a limb bone from a very large bovid Fig. Examination of the by the thickness of the compact bone 8. The periosteal breaks shows a superficial brown layer that covers a black surface shows traces of ancient weathering in the form of lon- inner one, demonstrating that the object was heated.
Absence gitudinal breaks and, at its center, the bone surface is exfoli- of spongy bone and the very compact appearance of the ated. Subsequently, the bone underwent a gentle mechanical 6-mm-thick bone suggest that the fragment cannot come abrasion that has left a highly polished appearance on some from a scapula; rather, it is probably from the limb bone areas.
In the first step in the production of main axis. They are heavily eroded and filled with compacted this tool, the edge of the bone was scraped in order to obtain sediment in places, demonstrating their antiquity. Changes in a round section. The flat surfaces were also scraped with an Table 1 Results for relative percentages of carbon and nitrogen for bone items recovered from various stratigraphic levels at Peers Cave by Peers and Jolly see also Fig.
The edge was cut either across the apex or on alternate sides of it. This resulted in an accumulation of shallow, sometimes overlapping, incisions that are difficult to discriminate visu- ally. The notches differentially preserve their inner morphol- ogy. Some have fresh edges and preserve well the internal striations that are visible on experimental incisions made with the same technique, while others are smoothed grooves with no or barely visible internal striations.
Both very fresh and heavily smoothed notches are found close to each other on the edge. The reason for such a pattern is use-wear that extensively affected the whole edge, which led to intense polishing of the most salient areas Fig. This wear is responsible for the gradual fading of the notches. The fresh appearance of some of the notches is the result of their hav- ing been carved when the bone surface and previously made notches were already worn. In sum, the accumulation of notches on this bone edge can be interpreted as a continuous rejuvenation of the area of the tool during its active use.
The type of wear, the directions of the striations recorded on them Fig. Microscopic residues of red pigments present in the depths of some of the notches indicate that ochre may have been involved in this activity.
The high polish that smoothes the prominent areas between the grooves left by scraping on both flat aspects Fig. This object Figs. We were unable to refit the two fragments as conjoined by Singer and Wymer , probably as a consequence of recent damage to the fragment.
Notches on the large fragment are present only on a portion of the edge and have been almost entirely removed by postdeposi- tional damage Fig. Those made on the small fragment Fig.
Scraping of this piece are worn. This wear shows an intense polishing motions were, during the latter work, parallel or slightly ob- that is present only on prominent areas between the notches lique to the tool edge.
After the initial preparation, numerous Fig. Spots of red pigments are visible on the flat as- superficial notches were carved on the edge. Microscopic pects of both fragments. Discussion end through retouch Figs. Caution is required when one assesses the artifactual nature of bone modified by percussion, Technological, chemical, morphometric, and contextual especially where modification is limited and there is no com- analyses of bone objects from four southern African MSA pelling evidence that the bone was used as a tool.
Continuous sites provide new data on bone-tool manufacture during the retouch along the edge of a bone can result from natural MSA. The artifactual nature of the objects examined here is causes, such as carnivore activity Villa and Bartram, beyond doubt for almost all of the specimens, the only excep- or deliberate bone breakage during marrow extraction tions being the incised piece Fig.
The morphology of this piece and the technology any assessment of flaked bones from a site. It is thus dif- shown that humans were the main agents of accumulation ficult to establish from the morphology alone the derivation of and that there are very few modifications to bone resulting the tool.
It seems possible but unlikely that it was deposited from animal activity Henshilwood et al. The awl made of bird bone E3 AH; Fig. It is pos- tools is not new at BBC. A large metatarsal fragment from the sible that this tool migrated into the M3 phase from the M2 Still Bay layers is thought to have been used as a soft hammer phase above, which is rich in tools of this type Henshilwood for knapping Henshilwood et al.
Future excavations of the M3 phase at BBC may fications through retouch are observed on other bone tools show whether bone was shaped for use as tools during the Ee- from BBC Henshilwood et al.
A detailed analysis of bone modification in the MSA levels Unfortunately, the contextual information concerning the at BBC now in progress Thompson, pers. How- in deciding whether modifications to some of the bones are ever, the attribution of the Peers point to the MSA is strongly due to natural causes or are anthropogenic in origin. An MSA age is also supported by The reliability of available data on the stratigraphic prove- the size of the tool and the manufacturing technique, making it nience, cultural affiliation, and dating of the specimens exam- remarkably similar to the three projectile points from the MSA ined here varies significantly from site to site and in some in BBC.
This is not the case for the Blombosch Sands point. The evidence suggests the Blombosch tened base. Additionally, this tool bears clear traces of manu- Sands awl dates to the LSA. The specimen originally refitted with the specimen shown in Figure Consequently, it can be argued for the thin equidistant lines engraved on the is difficult to establish whether bone tools were routinely man- heavily weathered bone fragment from Klasies River ufactured during the MSA occupations at KR.
No bone tools Fig. The same applies to the tiny marks incised on the were recovered during the Deacon excavations of the HP Peers Cave point Fig. Perhaps these are marks of ownership, similar to reported by Singer and Wymer suggests caution is those made by San on their arrow heads. Conclusion Technologically, morphologically, and dimensionally, the SAM-AA bone point is very similar to arrow points Our aim in this study was to refute the uniqueness of the found at LSA sites.
Technological convergence might be one MSA bone-tool industry at Blombos Cave and to enlarge explanation for this similarity, but if so, then why is there our knowledge of the technological and typological variability only one specimen from Klasies and why are similar bone of MSA bone industries.
Our research confirms that bone arti- points not found at other HP sites? It is possible that bone tools facts shaped by scraping are present in selected MSA levels at were confined only to some phases of the MSA and that the some sites, that bone tools are so far absent from the HP, and HP is not one of these phases.
On the other hand, in the that bone was used during the MSA for the retouching of stone case of this particular point, it may be that it derives from tools and was occasionally shaped by percussion flaking. More overlying LSA layers and has been erroneously attributed to information has emerged regarding the use of bone projectiles; the HP. The tagged point from heavily notched bonesdall bearing the same characteristic BBC demonstrates that there was variation in the shape of modifications and use-weardfrom the MSA II levels are dis- these points and in hafting techniques.
Although discreet, similar to bone artifacts from LSA assemblages and so their the presence of deliberate, arguably symbolic, markings on MSA provenience is very likely to be correct. MSA bone objects is also demonstrated by our analysis.
The location, technique of manufacture, and outline of the This indicates that bone, in addition to ochre, was a suitable engraved lines on the retouched shaft fragment Figs. Thus, bone tools the burnt fragment Fig. At least two other objects The symbolic significance of the marine-shell beads and the described here were not used as tools, or are tools that bear engraved ochre pieces, taken with the regular manufacture nonfunctional modifications that also could have had a sym- and use of bone tools, finely made bifacial points, and the bolic connotation.
Nevertheless, in the light of our results, we believe that future well-controlled excavations of MSA sites and the re-examination of purported bone tools following a multifaceted approach will likely increase the quantity of these artifacts.
Inferring the significance of bone-tool manu- facture among MSA people and determining whether and how bone-tool manufacture changed during the MSA in differ- ent geographic and environmental settings remain a challenge for Africanist archaeologists. This work was supported by grants to F. References Anthony, B. MarcheJune Anthony, B.
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Before Figure 18; b close-up view illustrating the deep notches produced by the Farming 2, 1e Hafting and use of bone and antler points from Ksar two notches showing a polish that was partially removed by a groove Akil, Lebanon. In: Stordeur, D. Binford, L. Bones: Ancient Men and Modern Myths. Academic Press, New York. Bonnichsen, R. Bone Modification.
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